THIS IS THE WORD TO LEARN.
Kluckhorn and Kroeber argued that culture had 6 main categories?Purpose of cultural psychology?Purpose of cultural psychology?Refer to Berry's ecocultural relativist theory of the mindWhat is the difference between deductive and inductive research methods?what is the difference between deductive and inductive research methods?genetic transmissions of culture in the berry ecocultural modelacculturation- berry ecocultural modelcultural transmissionmulticultural psychologyethnic minority psychologytranscultural psychiatryacquiescence biasmoderacy and extremity biassocially desirable respondingreference-group effectdeprivation effectproblems obtaining representative samples?Cultural TransmissionTransmitted culture versus evoked culture?Can animals engage in social learning?What kind of learning occurs from birth-9 months?What kind of social learning occurs from 9 months to 4 years?4-6 years learning6-7 years of age and social learning?cultural evolutionWhat is the \"ratchet effect\"?What is the epidemological view of cultural evolution?What is the cultural learning view of cultural evolution?Memetic view of cultural evolutionChildren versus primates in impulse control?Discuss Diamond's theory for why certain areas of the world advanced and others did not?Schwartz and Bilsky's defintion of valuesKluckhohn and Strodtbeck discovered 5 value dimensions that cultural groups vary on?Hofstede conducted a study identifying 4 different ways of cultural values, explain.Schwartz found 3 differing cultural value dimensionsSelf-concept?consult these diagramsself-descriptions and cultural differencesWhat cultural differences did the 20 statements test find?what are the differences between individualism and collectivism in self-consistencyCambell's self-concept clarity and self-esteem study findingsWhat is self-enhancement and what are the cultural differences?Eysenck's Trait theory of PersonalityEysenck's theory of personalityGender differences in Eysenck's trait personality theoryGender differences in Eysenck's personality trait theory?Masculinity:MasculinityIndividualismLong-Term Orientation:Mastery vs. HarmonyHierarchy versus egalitarianismConservatism versus autonomypsychoticismfactor-analysisTheory of mindImitative learningEmulative LearningEncephalization quotientSocial brain hypothesisneocortex ratioAccessibility universalFunctional universalExistential universalRussian cultural-historical schoolethnocentrismProximal causesDistal causestransmitted cultureNatural selectionSexual selectiondifference between cultural and biological evolutionEpidemology of ideasWhat are factors that cause ideas to spread?How are cultures changing?How does culture persistHow should we compare cultures?Occam's razorCulture of honorBy what age does the sensitive period of cultural learning \"end\"?By what age does the sensitive period of cultural learning end?What are some differences in how North Americans and East Asians view the future?What type of childhood experiences differ across culture?study about family and limited bedroom scenario revealeddescribe the different types of attachment stylesSchooling leads to what differences in cognitionCognitive dissoannce contdsubjective vs. objective self-awarenessincremental vs entity theory of selfDownward vs upward social comparisoncompensatory self-enhancement:DiscountingEternal attributionBask in the reflected gloryCultural differences in self-enhancement?Faceprevention orientationpromotion orientationprimary versus secondary controlFive Factor ModelWhat cultural differences did the NEO-PI-R find?What did Church et. al discover about personalityFive Factor ModelWhat cultural differences did the NEO-PI-R find?What did Church et. al discover about personalityKluckhorn and Kroeber argued that culture had 6 main categories?Purpose of cultural psychology?Purpose of cultural psychology?Refer to Berry's ecocultural relativist theory of the mindWhat is the difference between deductive and inductive research methods?what is the difference between deductive and inductive research methods?genetic transmissions of culture in the berry ecocultural modelacculturation- berry ecocultural modelcultural transmissionmulticultural psychologyethnic minority psychologytranscultural psychiatryacquiescence biasmoderacy and extremity biassocially desirable respondingreference-group effectdeprivation effectproblems obtaining representative samples?Cultural TransmissionTransmitted culture versus evoked culture?Can animals engage in social learning?What kind of learning occurs from birth-9 months?What kind of social learning occurs from 9 months to 4 years?4-6 years learning6-7 years of age and social learning?cultural evolutionWhat is the \"ratchet effect\"?What is the epidemological view of cultural evolution?What is the cultural learning view of cultural evolution?Memetic view of cultural evolutionChildren versus primates in impulse control?Discuss Diamond's theory for why certain areas of the world advanced and others did not?Schwartz and Bilsky's defintion of valuesKluckhohn and Strodtbeck discovered 5 value dimensions that cultural groups vary on?Hofstede conducted a study identifying 4 different ways of cultural values, explain.Schwartz found 3 differing cultural value dimensionsSelf-concept?consult these diagramsself-descriptions and cultural differencesWhat cultural differences did the 20 statements test find?what are the differences between individualism and collectivism in self-consistencyCambell's self-concept clarity and self-esteem study findingsWhat is self-enhancement and what are the cultural differences?Eysenck's Trait theory of PersonalityEysenck's theory of personalityGender differences in Eysenck's trait personality theoryGender differences in Eysenck's personality trait theory?Masculinity:MasculinityIndividualismLong-Term Orientation:Mastery vs. HarmonyHierarchy versus egalitarianismConservatism versus autonomypsychoticismfactor-analysisTheory of mindImitative learningEmulative LearningEncephalization quotientSocial brain hypothesisneocortex ratioAccessibility universalFunctional universalExistential universalRussian cultural-historical schoolethnocentrismProximal causesDistal causestransmitted cultureNatural selectionSexual selectiondifference between cultural and biological evolutionEpidemology of ideasWhat are factors that cause ideas to spread?How are cultures changing?How does culture persistHow should we compare cultures?Occam's razorCulture of honorBy what age does the sensitive period of cultural learning \"end\"?By what age does the sensitive period of cultural learning end?What are some differences in how North Americans and East Asians view the future?What type of childhood experiences differ across culture?study about family and limited bedroom scenario revealeddescribe the different types of attachment stylesSchooling leads to what differences in cognitionCognitive dissoannce contdsubjective vs. objective self-awarenessincremental vs entity theory of selfDownward vs upward social comparisoncompensatory self-enhancement:DiscountingEternal attributionBask in the reflected gloryCultural differences in self-enhancement?Faceprevention orientationpromotion orientationprimary versus secondary controlFive Factor ModelWhat cultural differences did the NEO-PI-R find?What did Church et. al discover about personalityFive Factor ModelWhat cultural differences did the NEO-PI-R find?What did Church et. al discover about personality
This is the text for a DEFINITION.
1. Descriptive definitions
2. Historical definitions
3. Normative definitions: patterns for living
4. Psychological definitions: traditional ways of solving problems
5.Structural definitions: social institutions
6. Non-Genetic definitions: nongenetic communication from one individual to anotherClick here to enter a definition.-concerned with identifying the links between culture and the psychological processes of people exposed to that cultural - This model contains two levels of analysis—the
population level and the individual level. Cultural
psychologists attempt to answer questions at both
levels.
-Click here to enter a definition.-deductive
Theory Hypotheses Research Observations
-inductive
Research Observations Hypotheses Theory: Living in Uganda with a lot of malaria. Ugandans became resistant through biological adaptations. If you were not born there and were visiting you would were a net and spray because you are not immune. o : Living in Uganda with a lot of malaria. Ugandans became resistant through biological adaptations. If you were not born there and were visiting you would were a net and spray because you are not immune. leaders delegate to those below them and so on, and thus a diverse set of jobs are accomplished. People accept their roles in a hierarchical modelinvolves the study of the individuals living in societies in which groups coexist. It attempts to identify the impact of “culture contact” on psychological processes & group relationsinvolves the study of individuals who form ethnic minority groups within a society. Ethnic minority psychologists study the psychological processes of ethnic minorities and the socio-political forces that affect ethnic minorities. “token” studies involves the study of abnormal behavior across cultures. Transcultural psychiatrists compare the frequency and characteristics of psychological disorders across cultures and attempt to identify “culture-bound” psychological disorders.refers to a tendency to agree with questionnaire items, irrespective of their content
remedy: include an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively-keyed items in questionnaires
ex:Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that
the respondent possesses the characteristic,
attitude, or belief assessed by the item.
E.g. I like to socialize.
Negatively-keyed items: Disagreement indicates
that the respondent possesses the characteristic,
attitude, or belief assessed by the item.
E.g. I like to spend a lot of time by myself.Moderacy bias: Refers to a tendency to select
scores near the midpoint of a rating scale when
responding to questionnaire items.
Extremity bias: Refers to a tendency to select
scores near the endpoints of a rating scale when
responding to questionnaire items.Refers to a tendency to respond to questionnaire
items in a way that promotes a favorable selfimage.
remedies:
-anonymous questionnaires
-Use neutral items to describe both positive and
negative characteristics.
-Use a separate measure to assess participants’
tendency to engage in socially desirable
responding. (marlowe-crowne social desirability scale or Paulhus self-deception scale)Refers to the fact that people from different cultures
use different standards to evaluate themselves
when responding to questionnaire items.
E.g., Rate the item “I am tall” using the following
chinese male versus dutch
- apparently questionnaires are resistant to referece-group effect because people are more likely to introspect
-remedies:Use items that refer to specific context-based
behaviours or scenarios rather than abstract
psychological concepts (e.g., emotions, traits).
Provide respondents with quantitative response
options rather than qualitative response options.
Use objective measures rather than self-report
measures.
Note: huge correlation between GNP and socially desirable responding
Lower GNP, higher socially desirable responding (-.70)
-Relevant to research on cultural differences in
values
-Refers to the fact that people indicate a preference
for values they lack or feel that they are deficient in
A respondent from an individualistic society is likely
to provide a higher rating for “accepting my position
in life,” whereas a respondent from a collectivistic
society is likely to provide a higher rating for
“choosing own goals.”
Remedy for the deprivation effect: Use items that
refer to specific context-based behaviours or
scenarios rather than abstract values.When examining psychological universals, cultural
psychologists should randomly sample from all
existing cultural groups in order to ensure
“worldwide representativeness.”
When examining a specific cultural group, cultural
psychologists should randomly sample from all
members of that cultural group in order to ensure
“sample representativeness-refers to the transfer and acquisition of cultural information through social learning.
-Vertical transmission, horizontal
transmission, and oblique transmission.
-The relative importance of these three forms of
cultural transmission varies with the size and degree
of industrialization of a society.Whereas transmitted culture is learned, evoked
culture emerges through interaction with
particular ecological conditions. These
ecological conditions activate responses that are
biologically encoded in all human beingsyes, (nonhuman primates), but humans appear to be the only species capable of complex cultural transmission
-Tomasello attributes to our unique cognitive skills
-the ability to understand other's perspectives= theory of mind
--Emulation only
E.g., An infant observes an adult open a jar and
learns that “the object can be opened.” With this
knowledge, the infant sets out to devise her own
strategy for opening the jar.0Between 9 and 12 months of age, infants begin to
recognize others as intentional agents (i.e., as
individuals who have independent intentions, goals,
and desires).
-Consistent with this change in social cognition,
children at this age begin to look where adults
look (gaze following) and direct adult attention to
objects or events that they are interested in (joint
attentional interactions).
-thus imitative learning starts-begin to recognize others as mental agents with independent beliefs
- can engage in instructive learningchildren begin to recognize
others as reflective agents (i.e., as individuals who
can reflect upon the beliefs of others).
-Given this change in social cognition, children
acquire the ability to engage in a new form of
learning—collaborative learning.
It allows for “cultural creation” or
cultural construction.Cultural evolution refers to the changes that occur to
the traditions, practices, and artifacts of a cultural
group across time.
Cultural evolution tends to be cumulative—that is, the
changes that occur to traditions, practices, and
artifacts tend to accumulate across time, building
upon previous modificationsThe cumulative nature of changes to cultural traditions,
practices, and tools among humans
Through the ratchet effect, cultural traditions, practices,
and tools among humans tend to increase in complexity
across time, often becoming more useful or adaptive.
E.g., The evolution of the knife-Maintains that cultural evolution occurs through the
modification of ideas as they are passed from
one individual to another.
-Ideas are modified as they are learned; individuals
interpret the ideas that they learn in their own
idiosyncratic ways, thereby creating “new” ideas
that they subsequently pass on to others
-Thus, ideas are never replicated; rather, learners
“recreate” the ideas that they are exposed to- Based on Tomasello’s Theory of Cultural Learning.
- Maintains that cultural evolution requires the
ability to recognize others as intentional agents.
- Recognition of others as intentional agents
enables imitative learning. Imitative learning is the
only means by which pre-existing behavioural
strategies can be accurately learned.
through imitation, (a) the goals
associated with those strategies can be further
considered and (b) more adaptive strategies that
build upon the original strategies can be developed-Dawkins defines a meme as “a unit of cultural
transmission” which propagates itself “by … a
process which, in the broad sense, can be called
imitation.”
-A meme may be of any size, ranging from a single
word to a complex behavioural pattern.
Examples of memes: Advertising slogans and jingles (e.g., “Where’s the beef?”).
Replication occurs when a meme is copied
through imitation
-Variation occurs through “mutation” and
“recombination.” Mutation occurs when memes
are modified (e.g., through misinterpretation,
embellishment). Recombination occurs when
two or more memes are combined. Mutation and
recombination are thought to produce new memes
or “innovations.”
Selection occurs through the differential retention
of memes in memory. Memes that are retained in
memory are more likely to be spread in the population-Children have impulse control to certain degrees, whereas primates do not-large, nutritious crops such as wheat and barley
-large mammals that can be domesticated- these stemmed from the fertile crescent out of the middle east
=farming to be more efficient and allowed others to specialize in other areas because of a food surplus.Values (a) are concepts or beliefs, (b) pertain to
desirable end states or behaviors, (c) transcend
specific situations, (d) guide selection or
evaluation of behavior and events, and (e) are
ordered by relative importance.”1. \"Time Orientation\" =Past, present, or future
2. \"Man-nature\" orientation= Subjugation to, harmony with, or
mastery over nature
3. \"Activity\" orientation= being, becoming or doing
4. \"Nature of man\" orientation= good, evil, mixed
5. \"Relational\" orientation= collateral, lineal or individualistic- study: examined values among IBM employees in 40 countries
-4 value dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and individualism1. Mastery vs. harmony
2. Hierarchy vs. egalitarianism vs. egalitarianism
3. Conservatism vs. autonomy
-he depicted the values in a circular structure
-adjacent values are compatible with one another and can be simultaneously pursued by a cultural group
-opposing are incompatible and cannot be simultaneously pursued.
-starting at top and going clockwise: hierarchy, conservatism, harmony, egalitarianism, autonomy, masteryA cognitive schema (i.e., organized
knowledge structure) that contains beliefs about the
self and controls the processing of self-relevant
information.
Specifically, theorists have come to believe that the
emphasis on independence and personal goals in
individualistic cultures leads people to develop an
“independent self-construal.”vs \"interdependent self-construal\"-independent self-construal:a lot of fluidity in ingroup andd outgroup entities not a lot in self and ingroup, but little fluidity between self and outgroup with interdependent and lots of fluidity between self and ingroup
Research has shown that people from individualistic
cultures tend use abstract, global, and stable
attributes (e.g., traits) to describe themselves,
whereas people from collectivistic cultures tend to
use social categories or affiliations (e.g., social roles)
to describe themselves.(a) 65% of the statements generated by American
participants referred to attributes, whereas 34%
of the statements generated by Indian
participants referred to attributes.
(b) 26% of the statements generated by American
participants referred to social categories,
whereas 42% of the statements generated by
Indian participants referred to social categories.Research has shown that the self-beliefs of people
from individualistic cultures tend to be more
consistent across social contexts than the self-beliefs
of people from collectivistic cultures.
is a greater
correlation between consistency of self-beliefs and
psychological adjustment in individualistic cultures
than collectivistic cultures.the SCC scores obtained by the Canadian
participants were higher than the SCC scores
obtained by the Japanese participants.
(b) the correlations between SCC and SE were
higher among the Canadian participants than the
Japanese participantsResearch suggests that people from individualistic
cultures tend to engage in self-enhancement—that
is, they tend to view and evaluate themselves in a
positive and socially desirable manner.
Self-enhancement is motivated by a desire to bolster
one’s self-image and demonstrate one’s unique
attributes.
=collectivistic cultures tend to engage in self-effacement in order to fit in with othersClick here to enter a definition. Eysenck developed his theory of personality on the
basis of pre-existing theories—specifically, theories
proposed centuries earlier by Hippocrates and
Galen.
In his original theory, Eysenck suggested that there
are 2 basic dimensions of personality:
-Extraverson:Reflects a desire for social interaction,
excitement, and activity. Encompasses traits such as
lively and sociable vs. passive and quiet.
-Emotional Instability:Emotional Instability: Reflects a tendency to
experience unstable emotions. Encompasses traits
such as anxious and moody vs. calm and eventempered.
- therefore there a 4 possible personality types
On the basis of subsequent research, Eysenck
identified a third personality dimension:
Psychoticism: Reflects a psychological detachment
from others. Encompasses traits such as toughminded
and impersonal vs. tender-minded and
sympathetic.Click here to enter a definition.-men higher on psychoticism and extroversion generally
-women higher on emotional instability
Click here to enter a definition.the degree to which cultures encourage males & females to adopt traditionally \"masculine\" and \"feminine\" alues respectively
-across cultures, women do no differ much but the level of masculinity does
the degree to which cultures emphasize independence and personal goals over interdependent and collective goals
-tend to be geographically separated from other cultures (ie america)
-high geographic mobility
-many immigrants
-smaller families
-correlated with GNP
-higher social pathology (ie divorces, crime etc)
rooted in Confucian philosophy
-prescribes to value of long-term commitments and tradition
The degree to which cultures emphasize mastery and control over the environment versus harmony with the preservation of the environment
the degree to which cultures emphasize hierarchical distribution of power and resources versus transcendence of selfish interests and welfare of all societal members
-SchwartzSchwartz: the degree to which cultures emphasize self-restraint and the maintenance of group harmony versus independent pursuit of ideas, interests and challenge and pleasureassociated with testorone levels
controversial because some think it measures things that are too heterogeneousallows researcher to examine all possible correlationspeople understand that others have minds that are different from their own, and thus that other people have perspectives and intentions that are different from their ownthe learner internalizes something of the models' goals and behavioral strategies learning is focused on the environmental events that are involved - how the use of one object could potentially effect changes in the state of the environment ratio of the brain weight of an animal to that predicted for a comparable animal of same body sizethose primates who were most successful at navigating the intracate and elaborate webs of socials relationships would have been more liekly to attract mates, secure resources and protect themselves and their offspring from dangers etc-volume of the neocortex to the rest of the brain
-developed to figure outthe evolution of primates large braina given cognitive tool exists in all cultures, is used to solve the same problem across cultures and is accessible to the same degree across cultures
-i.e. understanding that objects do not just disappeara cognitive tool exists in multiple cultures, it is used to solve the same problem across cultures yet it is more accessible to people from some cultures than others
-example: crime and punishment (different resources to punish across cultures but all do it in some manner or another)cognitive tool that exists in multiple cultures, although the tool is not necessarily used to solve the same problem, nor is it equally accessible across cultures
-ex: westerners find experiences of success motivating and failure demotivating people interact with their environment through the \"tools\" or human-made ideas that have been passed to them across history we often judge people from other cultures by comparing them to the standards of our own culture-ecocultural model
-those that have direct and immediate relations with their effects
- ex: Spaniards had the political organization that drew upon thousands of years of writing and history of oceangoing to travel to the Americas-ecocultural model
-initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time, and often through indirect relations.
-why spanish defeated the INcans, immunity to own diseases, guns over years of technological advances due to the proximity to the fertile crescent people come to learn about particular practices through social learning or by modeling others who live near them-biological evolution
-occurs when: individual variation exists, traits are associated with survival advantages, traits have a hereditary basis
-numerous trade-offs with every variation-biological evolution
-based on reproductive success-biological evolution has high fidelity and longevity (which cultural may or may not)
-fecundity - reproduce many copies of themselves to be more prevalent in future generations-distribution of diseases among populations
-first, an individual (inventor) has a mental representation of an idea in her mind.
=then another individual (imitator) who learns about the idea creates a mental representation of the idea in his own head. The idea is not directly translated because of individual's idiosyncrasies, and each time someone re-creates it anew-communicable= usually through language, out of this the dynamic social impact theory grows= individuals come to influence each other and they do so primarily in terms of how often the individual s interact= clusters of like-minded people united geographically
-emotional ideas spread- emotional salience, leads to contemporary legends fictional stories told in modern societies as though they are true, people are more likely to communicate ideas they think are useful
-minimally counterintuitive ideas persist= violate our expectations but are not too outlandish are recalled better than intuitive ones-becoming increasing interconnected, not necessarily homogeneous
-becoming more individualistic
-becoming more intelligent
-cultural innovations build on previous structures
-early conditions have disproportionate influence on cultural evolution
-pluralistic ignorance: tendency for people to collectively misinterpret the thoughts that underlie other people's behavior
-relevant because people are influenced by what they believe other people feel rather than by what the actually feel-develop some knowledge about the cultures under study
-contrasting highly different cultures versus similar cultures , methodological influence- having one's methods perceived in identical ways across different culturesprinciple stipulates that we should make as few assumptions as possible- people (especially men) strive to protect their reputation through aggresssion
- The american south is a culture of honor compared to the north
- herders=one's livelihood can be easily stolen, you must have a reputation that you will defend your herdClick here to enter a definition.-9 years some permanence emerges
-around 10 is when sensitive language period ends, it appears that the two may be inextricably intertwined -North Americans tend to think that trends will continue in the same direction as they have in the past whereas East Asians are more likely to expect that change will be nonlinear and that an increasing trend will soon be followed with a decreasing trend-sleeping arrangements, NA pretty much the only culture that thinks children should have a separate room
-individualistic versus collectivistic orientations: example individualistic cultures allow child to take the lead while the mother plays a supportive role whereas in collectivist cultures the mothers introduce topics and children
-attachment styles- see slides
-noun biases-INdians are guided by incest avoidance, protectin of the vulnerable (ie children), then female chastity anxiety, and finally respect fro hierarchy
-Americans valued incest avoidance, sacred couple (privacy for couples)
Attachment theory: infants and parents are biologically prepared to establish close attachmetns with eachother
-secure occaisionally seek mother's presence byt are curious and explorative, this is the style that is sought after in individualistic societies
-Avoidant : show little distress on their mother's absence and avoid her on her return, valued in Germans
-anxious-ambivalent: show distress when mother is gone but often avoid her upon return -improved contextual memory
-spatial memroy
-serial memory
-visual and sequential memory
-process information more efficiently Americans suffer more from this
-East Asians defend decisions amde for themselves by others more and Americans defend decisions they make mroe-subjective: individuals considering themselves from the perspective of the subject
-objective: individuals consider how they appear to others -incremental= the belief that we can easily change and are expected to change
-entity= aspects of the self are largely resistant to change, aspects of the self reflect the essence of the individual -downward; comparing your performance with the performance of someone who is doing even worse than you
-upward: someone doing betteryou acknowledge the poor grade you got in class, but you instead start to think about your excellent basketball skills-reducing the perceived importance of the domain in which you performed poorly in order to avoid cognitive dissonance-way of avoiding cognitive dissonance
-attribute the cause of our actions to something outside ourselves-of a successful group in which you belong. Emphasize your connectin to successfully performing others and feel better about yourself by sharing the warm glow of other's success-North Americans of Euro descent vs East Asia
-93% Eurro have high self-esteem, only 55% Jap
-Euro remember pos events Jap neg
-NA often compensate for failures by inflating self-assessments in other domains and Jap do opposite
- NA tend to discount Jap view it as more important
-book ties this back to predestination from protestant religion vs asian religion -the amount of social value others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position
-easy to lose
-kind of defensive, cautious approach to not losing something aka face
-focus on shortcomings to avoid future failure-concern with advancing oneself and aspiring for gains-primary= ppl achieve this by striving to shape existing realities to fit their perceptions, goals or wishes - control, influence, agency
-secondary= ppl attempt to align themselves with existing realities, leaving the realities unchanged, but exerting control over their psychological impact= accepting one's circumstance
The researchers consistently found 5 groups of
inter-correlated items. Each group of intercorrelated
items was thought to reflect a single
dimension of personality
Extraversion (E): Reflects engagement with the
social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive
and talkative vs. inhibited and shy.
Neuroticism (N): Reflects a tendency to experience
negative and unstable emotions. Encompasses traits
such as anxious and insecure vs. optimistic and
stable.
Agreeableness (A): Reflects a concern with
cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits
such as kind and sympathetic vs. cold and cruel.
Conscientiousness (C): Reflects an ability to control
and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as
meticulous and organized vs. disorderly and sloppy.
Openness to Experience (O): Reflects an open and
creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as
artistic and intellectual vs. unimaginative and
unreflective.
-NEO-PI-R measures thisthat countries contain like personality profiles-some have more dimensions
-Philippines have 7 dimensions
They labeled the dimensions:
Gregariousness, Self-assurance, Concern for others
vs. egotism, Conscientiousness, Intellect,
Temperamentalness, and Negative valence
They found that the first 5 of these dimensions were
highly correlated with the FFM dimensions of E, N, A,
C, and O, respectively
**Temperamentalness: Reflects emotional reactivity.
Encompasses traits such as hot-headed and irritable
vs. calm and understanding.
Negative valence: Reflects social deviance.
Encompasses traits such as crazy and sadistic vs.
normal and loving. NOT CORRELATED WITH OTHER 5The researchers consistently found 5 groups of
inter-correlated items. Each group of intercorrelated
items was thought to reflect a single
dimension of personality
Extraversion (E): Reflects engagement with the
social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive
and talkative vs. inhibited and shy.
Neuroticism (N): Reflects a tendency to experience
negative and unstable emotions. Encompasses traits
such as anxious and insecure vs. optimistic and
stable.
Agreeableness (A): Reflects a concern with
cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits
such as kind and sympathetic vs. cold and cruel.
Conscientiousness (C): Reflects an ability to control
and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as
meticulous and organized vs. disorderly and sloppy.
Openness to Experience (O): Reflects an open and
creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as
artistic and intellectual vs. unimaginative and
unreflective.
-NEO-PI-R measures thisthat countries contain like personality profiles-some have more dimensions
-Philippines have 7 dimensions
They labeled the dimensions:
Gregariousness, Self-assurance, Concern for others
vs. egotism, Conscientiousness, Intellect,
Temperamentalness, and Negative valence
They found that the first 5 of these dimensions were
highly correlated with the FFM dimensions of E, N, A,
C, and O, respectively
**Temperamentalness: Reflects emotional reactivity.
Encompasses traits such as hot-headed and irritable
vs. calm and understanding.
Negative valence: Reflects social deviance.
Encompasses traits such as crazy and sadistic vs.
normal and loving. NOT CORRELATED WITH OTHER 51. Descriptive definitions 2. Historical definitions 3. Normative definitions: patterns for living 4. Psychological definitions: traditional ways of solving problems 5.Structural definitions: social institutions 6. Non-Genetic definitions: nongenetic communication from one individual to anotherClick here to enter a definition.-concerned with identifying the links between culture and the psychological processes of people exposed to that cultural - This model contains two levels of analysis—the population level and the individual level. Cultural psychologists attempt to answer questions at both levels. -Click here to enter a definition.-deductive Theory Hypotheses Research Observations -inductive Research Observations Hypotheses Theory: Living in Uganda with a lot of malaria. Ugandans became resistant through biological adaptations. If you were not born there and were visiting you would were a net and spray because you are not immune. o : Living in Uganda with a lot of malaria. Ugandans became resistant through biological adaptations. If you were not born there and were visiting you would were a net and spray because you are not immune. leaders delegate to those below them and so on, and thus a diverse set of jobs are accomplished. People accept their roles in a hierarchical modelinvolves the study of the individuals living in societies in which groups coexist. It attempts to identify the impact of “culture contact” on psychological processes & group relationsinvolves the study of individuals who form ethnic minority groups within a society. Ethnic minority psychologists study the psychological processes of ethnic minorities and the socio-political forces that affect ethnic minorities. “token” studies involves the study of abnormal behavior across cultures. Transcultural psychiatrists compare the frequency and characteristics of psychological disorders across cultures and attempt to identify “culture-bound” psychological disorders.refers to a tendency to agree with questionnaire items, irrespective of their content remedy: include an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively-keyed items in questionnaires ex:Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that the respondent possesses the characteristic, attitude, or belief assessed by the item. E.g. I like to socialize. Negatively-keyed items: Disagreement indicates that the respondent possesses the characteristic, attitude, or belief assessed by the item. E.g. I like to spend a lot of time by myself.Moderacy bias: Refers to a tendency to select scores near the midpoint of a rating scale when responding to questionnaire items. Extremity bias: Refers to a tendency to select scores near the endpoints of a rating scale when responding to questionnaire items.Refers to a tendency to respond to questionnaire items in a way that promotes a favorable selfimage. remedies: -anonymous questionnaires -Use neutral items to describe both positive and negative characteristics. -Use a separate measure to assess participants’ tendency to engage in socially desirable responding. (marlowe-crowne social desirability scale or Paulhus self-deception scale)Refers to the fact that people from different cultures use different standards to evaluate themselves when responding to questionnaire items. E.g., Rate the item “I am tall” using the following chinese male versus dutch - apparently questionnaires are resistant to referece-group effect because people are more likely to introspect -remedies:Use items that refer to specific context-based behaviours or scenarios rather than abstract psychological concepts (e.g., emotions, traits). Provide respondents with quantitative response options rather than qualitative response options. Use objective measures rather than self-report measures. Note: huge correlation between GNP and socially desirable responding Lower GNP, higher socially desirable responding (-.70) -Relevant to research on cultural differences in values -Refers to the fact that people indicate a preference for values they lack or feel that they are deficient in A respondent from an individualistic society is likely to provide a higher rating for “accepting my position in life,” whereas a respondent from a collectivistic society is likely to provide a higher rating for “choosing own goals.” Remedy for the deprivation effect: Use items that refer to specific context-based behaviours or scenarios rather than abstract values.When examining psychological universals, cultural psychologists should randomly sample from all existing cultural groups in order to ensure “worldwide representativeness.” When examining a specific cultural group, cultural psychologists should randomly sample from all members of that cultural group in order to ensure “sample representativeness-refers to the transfer and acquisition of cultural information through social learning. -Vertical transmission, horizontal transmission, and oblique transmission. -The relative importance of these three forms of cultural transmission varies with the size and degree of industrialization of a society.Whereas transmitted culture is learned, evoked culture emerges through interaction with particular ecological conditions. These ecological conditions activate responses that are biologically encoded in all human beingsyes, (nonhuman primates), but humans appear to be the only species capable of complex cultural transmission -Tomasello attributes to our unique cognitive skills -the ability to understand other's perspectives= theory of mind --Emulation only E.g., An infant observes an adult open a jar and learns that “the object can be opened.” With this knowledge, the infant sets out to devise her own strategy for opening the jar.0Between 9 and 12 months of age, infants begin to recognize others as intentional agents (i.e., as individuals who have independent intentions, goals, and desires). -Consistent with this change in social cognition, children at this age begin to look where adults look (gaze following) and direct adult attention to objects or events that they are interested in (joint attentional interactions). -thus imitative learning starts-begin to recognize others as mental agents with independent beliefs - can engage in instructive learningchildren begin to recognize others as reflective agents (i.e., as individuals who can reflect upon the beliefs of others). -Given this change in social cognition, children acquire the ability to engage in a new form of learning—collaborative learning. It allows for “cultural creation” or cultural construction.Cultural evolution refers to the changes that occur to the traditions, practices, and artifacts of a cultural group across time. Cultural evolution tends to be cumulative—that is, the changes that occur to traditions, practices, and artifacts tend to accumulate across time, building upon previous modificationsThe cumulative nature of changes to cultural traditions, practices, and tools among humans Through the ratchet effect, cultural traditions, practices, and tools among humans tend to increase in complexity across time, often becoming more useful or adaptive. E.g., The evolution of the knife-Maintains that cultural evolution occurs through the modification of ideas as they are passed from one individual to another. -Ideas are modified as they are learned; individuals interpret the ideas that they learn in their own idiosyncratic ways, thereby creating “new” ideas that they subsequently pass on to others -Thus, ideas are never replicated; rather, learners “recreate” the ideas that they are exposed to- Based on Tomasello’s Theory of Cultural Learning. - Maintains that cultural evolution requires the ability to recognize others as intentional agents. - Recognition of others as intentional agents enables imitative learning. Imitative learning is the only means by which pre-existing behavioural strategies can be accurately learned. through imitation, (a) the goals associated with those strategies can be further considered and (b) more adaptive strategies that build upon the original strategies can be developed-Dawkins defines a meme as “a unit of cultural transmission” which propagates itself “by … a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation.” -A meme may be of any size, ranging from a single word to a complex behavioural pattern. Examples of memes: Advertising slogans and jingles (e.g., “Where’s the beef?”). Replication occurs when a meme is copied through imitation -Variation occurs through “mutation” and “recombination.” Mutation occurs when memes are modified (e.g., through misinterpretation, embellishment). Recombination occurs when two or more memes are combined. Mutation and recombination are thought to produce new memes or “innovations.” Selection occurs through the differential retention of memes in memory. Memes that are retained in memory are more likely to be spread in the population-Children have impulse control to certain degrees, whereas primates do not-large, nutritious crops such as wheat and barley -large mammals that can be domesticated- these stemmed from the fertile crescent out of the middle east =farming to be more efficient and allowed others to specialize in other areas because of a food surplus.Values (a) are concepts or beliefs, (b) pertain to desirable end states or behaviors, (c) transcend specific situations, (d) guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative importance.”1. \"Time Orientation\" =Past, present, or future 2. \"Man-nature\" orientation= Subjugation to, harmony with, or mastery over nature 3. \"Activity\" orientation= being, becoming or doing 4. \"Nature of man\" orientation= good, evil, mixed 5. \"Relational\" orientation= collateral, lineal or individualistic- study: examined values among IBM employees in 40 countries -4 value dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and individualism1. Mastery vs. harmony 2. Hierarchy vs. egalitarianism vs. egalitarianism 3. Conservatism vs. autonomy -he depicted the values in a circular structure -adjacent values are compatible with one another and can be simultaneously pursued by a cultural group -opposing are incompatible and cannot be simultaneously pursued. -starting at top and going clockwise: hierarchy, conservatism, harmony, egalitarianism, autonomy, masteryA cognitive schema (i.e., organized knowledge structure) that contains beliefs about the self and controls the processing of self-relevant information. Specifically, theorists have come to believe that the emphasis on independence and personal goals in individualistic cultures leads people to develop an “independent self-construal.”vs \"interdependent self-construal\"-independent self-construal:a lot of fluidity in ingroup andd outgroup entities not a lot in self and ingroup, but little fluidity between self and outgroup with interdependent and lots of fluidity between self and ingroup Research has shown that people from individualistic cultures tend use abstract, global, and stable attributes (e.g., traits) to describe themselves, whereas people from collectivistic cultures tend to use social categories or affiliations (e.g., social roles) to describe themselves.(a) 65% of the statements generated by American participants referred to attributes, whereas 34% of the statements generated by Indian participants referred to attributes. (b) 26% of the statements generated by American participants referred to social categories, whereas 42% of the statements generated by Indian participants referred to social categories.Research has shown that the self-beliefs of people from individualistic cultures tend to be more consistent across social contexts than the self-beliefs of people from collectivistic cultures. is a greater correlation between consistency of self-beliefs and psychological adjustment in individualistic cultures than collectivistic cultures.the SCC scores obtained by the Canadian participants were higher than the SCC scores obtained by the Japanese participants. (b) the correlations between SCC and SE were higher among the Canadian participants than the Japanese participantsResearch suggests that people from individualistic cultures tend to engage in self-enhancement—that is, they tend to view and evaluate themselves in a positive and socially desirable manner. Self-enhancement is motivated by a desire to bolster one’s self-image and demonstrate one’s unique attributes. =collectivistic cultures tend to engage in self-effacement in order to fit in with othersClick here to enter a definition. Eysenck developed his theory of personality on the basis of pre-existing theories—specifically, theories proposed centuries earlier by Hippocrates and Galen. In his original theory, Eysenck suggested that there are 2 basic dimensions of personality: -Extraverson:Reflects a desire for social interaction, excitement, and activity. Encompasses traits such as lively and sociable vs. passive and quiet. -Emotional Instability:Emotional Instability: Reflects a tendency to experience unstable emotions. Encompasses traits such as anxious and moody vs. calm and eventempered. - therefore there a 4 possible personality types On the basis of subsequent research, Eysenck identified a third personality dimension: Psychoticism: Reflects a psychological detachment from others. Encompasses traits such as toughminded and impersonal vs. tender-minded and sympathetic.Click here to enter a definition.-men higher on psychoticism and extroversion generally -women higher on emotional instability Click here to enter a definition.the degree to which cultures encourage males & females to adopt traditionally \"masculine\" and \"feminine\" alues respectively -across cultures, women do no differ much but the level of masculinity does the degree to which cultures emphasize independence and personal goals over interdependent and collective goals -tend to be geographically separated from other cultures (ie america) -high geographic mobility -many immigrants -smaller families -correlated with GNP -higher social pathology (ie divorces, crime etc) rooted in Confucian philosophy -prescribes to value of long-term commitments and tradition The degree to which cultures emphasize mastery and control over the environment versus harmony with the preservation of the environment the degree to which cultures emphasize hierarchical distribution of power and resources versus transcendence of selfish interests and welfare of all societal members -SchwartzSchwartz: the degree to which cultures emphasize self-restraint and the maintenance of group harmony versus independent pursuit of ideas, interests and challenge and pleasureassociated with testorone levels controversial because some think it measures things that are too heterogeneousallows researcher to examine all possible correlationspeople understand that others have minds that are different from their own, and thus that other people have perspectives and intentions that are different from their ownthe learner internalizes something of the models' goals and behavioral strategies learning is focused on the environmental events that are involved - how the use of one object could potentially effect changes in the state of the environment ratio of the brain weight of an animal to that predicted for a comparable animal of same body sizethose primates who were most successful at navigating the intracate and elaborate webs of socials relationships would have been more liekly to attract mates, secure resources and protect themselves and their offspring from dangers etc-volume of the neocortex to the rest of the brain -developed to figure outthe evolution of primates large braina given cognitive tool exists in all cultures, is used to solve the same problem across cultures and is accessible to the same degree across cultures -i.e. understanding that objects do not just disappeara cognitive tool exists in multiple cultures, it is used to solve the same problem across cultures yet it is more accessible to people from some cultures than others -example: crime and punishment (different resources to punish across cultures but all do it in some manner or another)cognitive tool that exists in multiple cultures, although the tool is not necessarily used to solve the same problem, nor is it equally accessible across cultures -ex: westerners find experiences of success motivating and failure demotivating people interact with their environment through the \"tools\" or human-made ideas that have been passed to them across history we often judge people from other cultures by comparing them to the standards of our own culture-ecocultural model -those that have direct and immediate relations with their effects - ex: Spaniards had the political organization that drew upon thousands of years of writing and history of oceangoing to travel to the Americas-ecocultural model -initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time, and often through indirect relations. -why spanish defeated the INcans, immunity to own diseases, guns over years of technological advances due to the proximity to the fertile crescent people come to learn about particular practices through social learning or by modeling others who live near them-biological evolution -occurs when: individual variation exists, traits are associated with survival advantages, traits have a hereditary basis -numerous trade-offs with every variation-biological evolution -based on reproductive success-biological evolution has high fidelity and longevity (which cultural may or may not) -fecundity - reproduce many copies of themselves to be more prevalent in future generations-distribution of diseases among populations -first, an individual (inventor) has a mental representation of an idea in her mind. =then another individual (imitator) who learns about the idea creates a mental representation of the idea in his own head. The idea is not directly translated because of individual's idiosyncrasies, and each time someone re-creates it anew-communicable= usually through language, out of this the dynamic social impact theory grows= individuals come to influence each other and they do so primarily in terms of how often the individual s interact= clusters of like-minded people united geographically -emotional ideas spread- emotional salience, leads to contemporary legends fictional stories told in modern societies as though they are true, people are more likely to communicate ideas they think are useful -minimally counterintuitive ideas persist= violate our expectations but are not too outlandish are recalled better than intuitive ones-becoming increasing interconnected, not necessarily homogeneous -becoming more individualistic -becoming more intelligent -cultural innovations build on previous structures -early conditions have disproportionate influence on cultural evolution -pluralistic ignorance: tendency for people to collectively misinterpret the thoughts that underlie other people's behavior -relevant because people are influenced by what they believe other people feel rather than by what the actually feel-develop some knowledge about the cultures under study -contrasting highly different cultures versus similar cultures , methodological influence- having one's methods perceived in identical ways across different culturesprinciple stipulates that we should make as few assumptions as possible- people (especially men) strive to protect their reputation through aggresssion - The american south is a culture of honor compared to the north - herders=one's livelihood can be easily stolen, you must have a reputation that you will defend your herdClick here to enter a definition.-9 years some permanence emerges -around 10 is when sensitive language period ends, it appears that the two may be inextricably intertwined -North Americans tend to think that trends will continue in the same direction as they have in the past whereas East Asians are more likely to expect that change will be nonlinear and that an increasing trend will soon be followed with a decreasing trend-sleeping arrangements, NA pretty much the only culture that thinks children should have a separate room -individualistic versus collectivistic orientations: example individualistic cultures allow child to take the lead while the mother plays a supportive role whereas in collectivist cultures the mothers introduce topics and children -attachment styles- see slides -noun biases-INdians are guided by incest avoidance, protectin of the vulnerable (ie children), then female chastity anxiety, and finally respect fro hierarchy -Americans valued incest avoidance, sacred couple (privacy for couples) Attachment theory: infants and parents are biologically prepared to establish close attachmetns with eachother -secure occaisionally seek mother's presence byt are curious and explorative, this is the style that is sought after in individualistic societies -Avoidant : show little distress on their mother's absence and avoid her on her return, valued in Germans -anxious-ambivalent: show distress when mother is gone but often avoid her upon return -improved contextual memory -spatial memroy -serial memory -visual and sequential memory -process information more efficiently Americans suffer more from this -East Asians defend decisions amde for themselves by others more and Americans defend decisions they make mroe-subjective: individuals considering themselves from the perspective of the subject -objective: individuals consider how they appear to others -incremental= the belief that we can easily change and are expected to change -entity= aspects of the self are largely resistant to change, aspects of the self reflect the essence of the individual -downward; comparing your performance with the performance of someone who is doing even worse than you -upward: someone doing betteryou acknowledge the poor grade you got in class, but you instead start to think about your excellent basketball skills-reducing the perceived importance of the domain in which you performed poorly in order to avoid cognitive dissonance-way of avoiding cognitive dissonance -attribute the cause of our actions to something outside ourselves-of a successful group in which you belong. Emphasize your connectin to successfully performing others and feel better about yourself by sharing the warm glow of other's success-North Americans of Euro descent vs East Asia -93% Eurro have high self-esteem, only 55% Jap -Euro remember pos events Jap neg -NA often compensate for failures by inflating self-assessments in other domains and Jap do opposite - NA tend to discount Jap view it as more important -book ties this back to predestination from protestant religion vs asian religion -the amount of social value others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position -easy to lose -kind of defensive, cautious approach to not losing something aka face -focus on shortcomings to avoid future failure-concern with advancing oneself and aspiring for gains-primary= ppl achieve this by striving to shape existing realities to fit their perceptions, goals or wishes - control, influence, agency -secondary= ppl attempt to align themselves with existing realities, leaving the realities unchanged, but exerting control over their psychological impact= accepting one's circumstance The researchers consistently found 5 groups of inter-correlated items. Each group of intercorrelated items was thought to reflect a single dimension of personality Extraversion (E): Reflects engagement with the social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive and talkative vs. inhibited and shy. Neuroticism (N): Reflects a tendency to experience negative and unstable emotions. Encompasses traits such as anxious and insecure vs. optimistic and stable. Agreeableness (A): Reflects a concern with cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits such as kind and sympathetic vs. cold and cruel. Conscientiousness (C): Reflects an ability to control and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as meticulous and organized vs. disorderly and sloppy. Openness to Experience (O): Reflects an open and creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as artistic and intellectual vs. unimaginative and unreflective. -NEO-PI-R measures thisthat countries contain like personality profiles-some have more dimensions -Philippines have 7 dimensions They labeled the dimensions: Gregariousness, Self-assurance, Concern for others vs. egotism, Conscientiousness, Intellect, Temperamentalness, and Negative valence They found that the first 5 of these dimensions were highly correlated with the FFM dimensions of E, N, A, C, and O, respectively **Temperamentalness: Reflects emotional reactivity. Encompasses traits such as hot-headed and irritable vs. calm and understanding. Negative valence: Reflects social deviance. Encompasses traits such as crazy and sadistic vs. normal and loving. NOT CORRELATED WITH OTHER 5The researchers consistently found 5 groups of inter-correlated items. Each group of intercorrelated items was thought to reflect a single dimension of personality Extraversion (E): Reflects engagement with the social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive and talkative vs. inhibited and shy. Neuroticism (N): Reflects a tendency to experience negative and unstable emotions. Encompasses traits such as anxious and insecure vs. optimistic and stable. Agreeableness (A): Reflects a concern with cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits such as kind and sympathetic vs. cold and cruel. Conscientiousness (C): Reflects an ability to control and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as meticulous and organized vs. disorderly and sloppy. Openness to Experience (O): Reflects an open and creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as artistic and intellectual vs. unimaginative and unreflective. -NEO-PI-R measures thisthat countries contain like personality profiles-some have more dimensions -Philippines have 7 dimensions They labeled the dimensions: Gregariousness, Self-assurance, Concern for others vs. egotism, Conscientiousness, Intellect, Temperamentalness, and Negative valence They found that the first 5 of these dimensions were highly correlated with the FFM dimensions of E, N, A, C, and O, respectively **Temperamentalness: Reflects emotional reactivity. Encompasses traits such as hot-headed and irritable vs. calm and understanding. Negative valence: Reflects social deviance. Encompasses traits such as crazy and sadistic vs. normal and loving. NOT CORRELATED WITH OTHER 5
2. Historical definitions
3. Normative definitions: patterns for living
4. Psychological definitions: traditional ways of solving problems
5.Structural definitions: social institutions
6. Non-Genetic definitions: nongenetic communication from one individual to anotherClick here to enter a definition.-concerned with identifying the links between culture and the psychological processes of people exposed to that cultural - This model contains two levels of analysis—the
population level and the individual level. Cultural
psychologists attempt to answer questions at both
levels.
-Click here to enter a definition.-deductive
Theory Hypotheses Research Observations
-inductive
Research Observations Hypotheses Theory: Living in Uganda with a lot of malaria. Ugandans became resistant through biological adaptations. If you were not born there and were visiting you would were a net and spray because you are not immune. o : Living in Uganda with a lot of malaria. Ugandans became resistant through biological adaptations. If you were not born there and were visiting you would were a net and spray because you are not immune. leaders delegate to those below them and so on, and thus a diverse set of jobs are accomplished. People accept their roles in a hierarchical modelinvolves the study of the individuals living in societies in which groups coexist. It attempts to identify the impact of “culture contact” on psychological processes & group relationsinvolves the study of individuals who form ethnic minority groups within a society. Ethnic minority psychologists study the psychological processes of ethnic minorities and the socio-political forces that affect ethnic minorities. “token” studies involves the study of abnormal behavior across cultures. Transcultural psychiatrists compare the frequency and characteristics of psychological disorders across cultures and attempt to identify “culture-bound” psychological disorders.refers to a tendency to agree with questionnaire items, irrespective of their content
remedy: include an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively-keyed items in questionnaires
ex:Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that
the respondent possesses the characteristic,
attitude, or belief assessed by the item.
E.g. I like to socialize.
Negatively-keyed items: Disagreement indicates
that the respondent possesses the characteristic,
attitude, or belief assessed by the item.
E.g. I like to spend a lot of time by myself.Moderacy bias: Refers to a tendency to select
scores near the midpoint of a rating scale when
responding to questionnaire items.
Extremity bias: Refers to a tendency to select
scores near the endpoints of a rating scale when
responding to questionnaire items.Refers to a tendency to respond to questionnaire
items in a way that promotes a favorable selfimage.
remedies:
-anonymous questionnaires
-Use neutral items to describe both positive and
negative characteristics.
-Use a separate measure to assess participants’
tendency to engage in socially desirable
responding. (marlowe-crowne social desirability scale or Paulhus self-deception scale)Refers to the fact that people from different cultures
use different standards to evaluate themselves
when responding to questionnaire items.
E.g., Rate the item “I am tall” using the following
chinese male versus dutch
- apparently questionnaires are resistant to referece-group effect because people are more likely to introspect
-remedies:Use items that refer to specific context-based
behaviours or scenarios rather than abstract
psychological concepts (e.g., emotions, traits).
Provide respondents with quantitative response
options rather than qualitative response options.
Use objective measures rather than self-report
measures.
Note: huge correlation between GNP and socially desirable responding
Lower GNP, higher socially desirable responding (-.70)
-Relevant to research on cultural differences in
values
-Refers to the fact that people indicate a preference
for values they lack or feel that they are deficient in
A respondent from an individualistic society is likely
to provide a higher rating for “accepting my position
in life,” whereas a respondent from a collectivistic
society is likely to provide a higher rating for
“choosing own goals.”
Remedy for the deprivation effect: Use items that
refer to specific context-based behaviours or
scenarios rather than abstract values.When examining psychological universals, cultural
psychologists should randomly sample from all
existing cultural groups in order to ensure
“worldwide representativeness.”
When examining a specific cultural group, cultural
psychologists should randomly sample from all
members of that cultural group in order to ensure
“sample representativeness-refers to the transfer and acquisition of cultural information through social learning.
-Vertical transmission, horizontal
transmission, and oblique transmission.
-The relative importance of these three forms of
cultural transmission varies with the size and degree
of industrialization of a society.Whereas transmitted culture is learned, evoked
culture emerges through interaction with
particular ecological conditions. These
ecological conditions activate responses that are
biologically encoded in all human beingsyes, (nonhuman primates), but humans appear to be the only species capable of complex cultural transmission
-Tomasello attributes to our unique cognitive skills
-the ability to understand other's perspectives= theory of mind
--Emulation only
E.g., An infant observes an adult open a jar and
learns that “the object can be opened.” With this
knowledge, the infant sets out to devise her own
strategy for opening the jar.0Between 9 and 12 months of age, infants begin to
recognize others as intentional agents (i.e., as
individuals who have independent intentions, goals,
and desires).
-Consistent with this change in social cognition,
children at this age begin to look where adults
look (gaze following) and direct adult attention to
objects or events that they are interested in (joint
attentional interactions).
-thus imitative learning starts-begin to recognize others as mental agents with independent beliefs
- can engage in instructive learningchildren begin to recognize
others as reflective agents (i.e., as individuals who
can reflect upon the beliefs of others).
-Given this change in social cognition, children
acquire the ability to engage in a new form of
learning—collaborative learning.
It allows for “cultural creation” or
cultural construction.Cultural evolution refers to the changes that occur to
the traditions, practices, and artifacts of a cultural
group across time.
Cultural evolution tends to be cumulative—that is, the
changes that occur to traditions, practices, and
artifacts tend to accumulate across time, building
upon previous modificationsThe cumulative nature of changes to cultural traditions,
practices, and tools among humans
Through the ratchet effect, cultural traditions, practices,
and tools among humans tend to increase in complexity
across time, often becoming more useful or adaptive.
E.g., The evolution of the knife-Maintains that cultural evolution occurs through the
modification of ideas as they are passed from
one individual to another.
-Ideas are modified as they are learned; individuals
interpret the ideas that they learn in their own
idiosyncratic ways, thereby creating “new” ideas
that they subsequently pass on to others
-Thus, ideas are never replicated; rather, learners
“recreate” the ideas that they are exposed to- Based on Tomasello’s Theory of Cultural Learning.
- Maintains that cultural evolution requires the
ability to recognize others as intentional agents.
- Recognition of others as intentional agents
enables imitative learning. Imitative learning is the
only means by which pre-existing behavioural
strategies can be accurately learned.
through imitation, (a) the goals
associated with those strategies can be further
considered and (b) more adaptive strategies that
build upon the original strategies can be developed-Dawkins defines a meme as “a unit of cultural
transmission” which propagates itself “by … a
process which, in the broad sense, can be called
imitation.”
-A meme may be of any size, ranging from a single
word to a complex behavioural pattern.
Examples of memes: Advertising slogans and jingles (e.g., “Where’s the beef?”).
Replication occurs when a meme is copied
through imitation
-Variation occurs through “mutation” and
“recombination.” Mutation occurs when memes
are modified (e.g., through misinterpretation,
embellishment). Recombination occurs when
two or more memes are combined. Mutation and
recombination are thought to produce new memes
or “innovations.”
Selection occurs through the differential retention
of memes in memory. Memes that are retained in
memory are more likely to be spread in the population-Children have impulse control to certain degrees, whereas primates do not-large, nutritious crops such as wheat and barley
-large mammals that can be domesticated- these stemmed from the fertile crescent out of the middle east
=farming to be more efficient and allowed others to specialize in other areas because of a food surplus.Values (a) are concepts or beliefs, (b) pertain to
desirable end states or behaviors, (c) transcend
specific situations, (d) guide selection or
evaluation of behavior and events, and (e) are
ordered by relative importance.”1. \"Time Orientation\" =Past, present, or future
2. \"Man-nature\" orientation= Subjugation to, harmony with, or
mastery over nature
3. \"Activity\" orientation= being, becoming or doing
4. \"Nature of man\" orientation= good, evil, mixed
5. \"Relational\" orientation= collateral, lineal or individualistic- study: examined values among IBM employees in 40 countries
-4 value dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and individualism1. Mastery vs. harmony
2. Hierarchy vs. egalitarianism vs. egalitarianism
3. Conservatism vs. autonomy
-he depicted the values in a circular structure
-adjacent values are compatible with one another and can be simultaneously pursued by a cultural group
-opposing are incompatible and cannot be simultaneously pursued.
-starting at top and going clockwise: hierarchy, conservatism, harmony, egalitarianism, autonomy, masteryA cognitive schema (i.e., organized
knowledge structure) that contains beliefs about the
self and controls the processing of self-relevant
information.
Specifically, theorists have come to believe that the
emphasis on independence and personal goals in
individualistic cultures leads people to develop an
“independent self-construal.”vs \"interdependent self-construal\"-independent self-construal:a lot of fluidity in ingroup andd outgroup entities not a lot in self and ingroup, but little fluidity between self and outgroup with interdependent and lots of fluidity between self and ingroup
Research has shown that people from individualistic
cultures tend use abstract, global, and stable
attributes (e.g., traits) to describe themselves,
whereas people from collectivistic cultures tend to
use social categories or affiliations (e.g., social roles)
to describe themselves.(a) 65% of the statements generated by American
participants referred to attributes, whereas 34%
of the statements generated by Indian
participants referred to attributes.
(b) 26% of the statements generated by American
participants referred to social categories,
whereas 42% of the statements generated by
Indian participants referred to social categories.Research has shown that the self-beliefs of people
from individualistic cultures tend to be more
consistent across social contexts than the self-beliefs
of people from collectivistic cultures.
is a greater
correlation between consistency of self-beliefs and
psychological adjustment in individualistic cultures
than collectivistic cultures.the SCC scores obtained by the Canadian
participants were higher than the SCC scores
obtained by the Japanese participants.
(b) the correlations between SCC and SE were
higher among the Canadian participants than the
Japanese participantsResearch suggests that people from individualistic
cultures tend to engage in self-enhancement—that
is, they tend to view and evaluate themselves in a
positive and socially desirable manner.
Self-enhancement is motivated by a desire to bolster
one’s self-image and demonstrate one’s unique
attributes.
=collectivistic cultures tend to engage in self-effacement in order to fit in with othersClick here to enter a definition. Eysenck developed his theory of personality on the
basis of pre-existing theories—specifically, theories
proposed centuries earlier by Hippocrates and
Galen.
In his original theory, Eysenck suggested that there
are 2 basic dimensions of personality:
-Extraverson:Reflects a desire for social interaction,
excitement, and activity. Encompasses traits such as
lively and sociable vs. passive and quiet.
-Emotional Instability:Emotional Instability: Reflects a tendency to
experience unstable emotions. Encompasses traits
such as anxious and moody vs. calm and eventempered.
- therefore there a 4 possible personality types
On the basis of subsequent research, Eysenck
identified a third personality dimension:
Psychoticism: Reflects a psychological detachment
from others. Encompasses traits such as toughminded
and impersonal vs. tender-minded and
sympathetic.Click here to enter a definition.-men higher on psychoticism and extroversion generally
-women higher on emotional instability
Click here to enter a definition.the degree to which cultures encourage males & females to adopt traditionally \"masculine\" and \"feminine\" alues respectively
-across cultures, women do no differ much but the level of masculinity does
the degree to which cultures emphasize independence and personal goals over interdependent and collective goals
-tend to be geographically separated from other cultures (ie america)
-high geographic mobility
-many immigrants
-smaller families
-correlated with GNP
-higher social pathology (ie divorces, crime etc)
rooted in Confucian philosophy
-prescribes to value of long-term commitments and tradition
The degree to which cultures emphasize mastery and control over the environment versus harmony with the preservation of the environment
the degree to which cultures emphasize hierarchical distribution of power and resources versus transcendence of selfish interests and welfare of all societal members
-SchwartzSchwartz: the degree to which cultures emphasize self-restraint and the maintenance of group harmony versus independent pursuit of ideas, interests and challenge and pleasureassociated with testorone levels
controversial because some think it measures things that are too heterogeneousallows researcher to examine all possible correlationspeople understand that others have minds that are different from their own, and thus that other people have perspectives and intentions that are different from their ownthe learner internalizes something of the models' goals and behavioral strategies learning is focused on the environmental events that are involved - how the use of one object could potentially effect changes in the state of the environment ratio of the brain weight of an animal to that predicted for a comparable animal of same body sizethose primates who were most successful at navigating the intracate and elaborate webs of socials relationships would have been more liekly to attract mates, secure resources and protect themselves and their offspring from dangers etc-volume of the neocortex to the rest of the brain
-developed to figure outthe evolution of primates large braina given cognitive tool exists in all cultures, is used to solve the same problem across cultures and is accessible to the same degree across cultures
-i.e. understanding that objects do not just disappeara cognitive tool exists in multiple cultures, it is used to solve the same problem across cultures yet it is more accessible to people from some cultures than others
-example: crime and punishment (different resources to punish across cultures but all do it in some manner or another)cognitive tool that exists in multiple cultures, although the tool is not necessarily used to solve the same problem, nor is it equally accessible across cultures
-ex: westerners find experiences of success motivating and failure demotivating people interact with their environment through the \"tools\" or human-made ideas that have been passed to them across history we often judge people from other cultures by comparing them to the standards of our own culture-ecocultural model
-those that have direct and immediate relations with their effects
- ex: Spaniards had the political organization that drew upon thousands of years of writing and history of oceangoing to travel to the Americas-ecocultural model
-initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time, and often through indirect relations.
-why spanish defeated the INcans, immunity to own diseases, guns over years of technological advances due to the proximity to the fertile crescent people come to learn about particular practices through social learning or by modeling others who live near them-biological evolution
-occurs when: individual variation exists, traits are associated with survival advantages, traits have a hereditary basis
-numerous trade-offs with every variation-biological evolution
-based on reproductive success-biological evolution has high fidelity and longevity (which cultural may or may not)
-fecundity - reproduce many copies of themselves to be more prevalent in future generations-distribution of diseases among populations
-first, an individual (inventor) has a mental representation of an idea in her mind.
=then another individual (imitator) who learns about the idea creates a mental representation of the idea in his own head. The idea is not directly translated because of individual's idiosyncrasies, and each time someone re-creates it anew-communicable= usually through language, out of this the dynamic social impact theory grows= individuals come to influence each other and they do so primarily in terms of how often the individual s interact= clusters of like-minded people united geographically
-emotional ideas spread- emotional salience, leads to contemporary legends fictional stories told in modern societies as though they are true, people are more likely to communicate ideas they think are useful
-minimally counterintuitive ideas persist= violate our expectations but are not too outlandish are recalled better than intuitive ones-becoming increasing interconnected, not necessarily homogeneous
-becoming more individualistic
-becoming more intelligent
-cultural innovations build on previous structures
-early conditions have disproportionate influence on cultural evolution
-pluralistic ignorance: tendency for people to collectively misinterpret the thoughts that underlie other people's behavior
-relevant because people are influenced by what they believe other people feel rather than by what the actually feel-develop some knowledge about the cultures under study
-contrasting highly different cultures versus similar cultures , methodological influence- having one's methods perceived in identical ways across different culturesprinciple stipulates that we should make as few assumptions as possible- people (especially men) strive to protect their reputation through aggresssion
- The american south is a culture of honor compared to the north
- herders=one's livelihood can be easily stolen, you must have a reputation that you will defend your herdClick here to enter a definition.-9 years some permanence emerges
-around 10 is when sensitive language period ends, it appears that the two may be inextricably intertwined -North Americans tend to think that trends will continue in the same direction as they have in the past whereas East Asians are more likely to expect that change will be nonlinear and that an increasing trend will soon be followed with a decreasing trend-sleeping arrangements, NA pretty much the only culture that thinks children should have a separate room
-individualistic versus collectivistic orientations: example individualistic cultures allow child to take the lead while the mother plays a supportive role whereas in collectivist cultures the mothers introduce topics and children
-attachment styles- see slides
-noun biases-INdians are guided by incest avoidance, protectin of the vulnerable (ie children), then female chastity anxiety, and finally respect fro hierarchy
-Americans valued incest avoidance, sacred couple (privacy for couples)
Attachment theory: infants and parents are biologically prepared to establish close attachmetns with eachother
-secure occaisionally seek mother's presence byt are curious and explorative, this is the style that is sought after in individualistic societies
-Avoidant : show little distress on their mother's absence and avoid her on her return, valued in Germans
-anxious-ambivalent: show distress when mother is gone but often avoid her upon return -improved contextual memory
-spatial memroy
-serial memory
-visual and sequential memory
-process information more efficiently Americans suffer more from this
-East Asians defend decisions amde for themselves by others more and Americans defend decisions they make mroe-subjective: individuals considering themselves from the perspective of the subject
-objective: individuals consider how they appear to others -incremental= the belief that we can easily change and are expected to change
-entity= aspects of the self are largely resistant to change, aspects of the self reflect the essence of the individual -downward; comparing your performance with the performance of someone who is doing even worse than you
-upward: someone doing betteryou acknowledge the poor grade you got in class, but you instead start to think about your excellent basketball skills-reducing the perceived importance of the domain in which you performed poorly in order to avoid cognitive dissonance-way of avoiding cognitive dissonance
-attribute the cause of our actions to something outside ourselves-of a successful group in which you belong. Emphasize your connectin to successfully performing others and feel better about yourself by sharing the warm glow of other's success-North Americans of Euro descent vs East Asia
-93% Eurro have high self-esteem, only 55% Jap
-Euro remember pos events Jap neg
-NA often compensate for failures by inflating self-assessments in other domains and Jap do opposite
- NA tend to discount Jap view it as more important
-book ties this back to predestination from protestant religion vs asian religion -the amount of social value others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position
-easy to lose
-kind of defensive, cautious approach to not losing something aka face
-focus on shortcomings to avoid future failure-concern with advancing oneself and aspiring for gains-primary= ppl achieve this by striving to shape existing realities to fit their perceptions, goals or wishes - control, influence, agency
-secondary= ppl attempt to align themselves with existing realities, leaving the realities unchanged, but exerting control over their psychological impact= accepting one's circumstance
The researchers consistently found 5 groups of
inter-correlated items. Each group of intercorrelated
items was thought to reflect a single
dimension of personality
Extraversion (E): Reflects engagement with the
social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive
and talkative vs. inhibited and shy.
Neuroticism (N): Reflects a tendency to experience
negative and unstable emotions. Encompasses traits
such as anxious and insecure vs. optimistic and
stable.
Agreeableness (A): Reflects a concern with
cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits
such as kind and sympathetic vs. cold and cruel.
Conscientiousness (C): Reflects an ability to control
and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as
meticulous and organized vs. disorderly and sloppy.
Openness to Experience (O): Reflects an open and
creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as
artistic and intellectual vs. unimaginative and
unreflective.
-NEO-PI-R measures thisthat countries contain like personality profiles-some have more dimensions
-Philippines have 7 dimensions
They labeled the dimensions:
Gregariousness, Self-assurance, Concern for others
vs. egotism, Conscientiousness, Intellect,
Temperamentalness, and Negative valence
They found that the first 5 of these dimensions were
highly correlated with the FFM dimensions of E, N, A,
C, and O, respectively
**Temperamentalness: Reflects emotional reactivity.
Encompasses traits such as hot-headed and irritable
vs. calm and understanding.
Negative valence: Reflects social deviance.
Encompasses traits such as crazy and sadistic vs.
normal and loving. NOT CORRELATED WITH OTHER 5The researchers consistently found 5 groups of
inter-correlated items. Each group of intercorrelated
items was thought to reflect a single
dimension of personality
Extraversion (E): Reflects engagement with the
social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive
and talkative vs. inhibited and shy.
Neuroticism (N): Reflects a tendency to experience
negative and unstable emotions. Encompasses traits
such as anxious and insecure vs. optimistic and
stable.
Agreeableness (A): Reflects a concern with
cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits
such as kind and sympathetic vs. cold and cruel.
Conscientiousness (C): Reflects an ability to control
and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as
meticulous and organized vs. disorderly and sloppy.
Openness to Experience (O): Reflects an open and
creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as
artistic and intellectual vs. unimaginative and
unreflective.
-NEO-PI-R measures thisthat countries contain like personality profiles-some have more dimensions
-Philippines have 7 dimensions
They labeled the dimensions:
Gregariousness, Self-assurance, Concern for others
vs. egotism, Conscientiousness, Intellect,
Temperamentalness, and Negative valence
They found that the first 5 of these dimensions were
highly correlated with the FFM dimensions of E, N, A,
C, and O, respectively
**Temperamentalness: Reflects emotional reactivity.
Encompasses traits such as hot-headed and irritable
vs. calm and understanding.
Negative valence: Reflects social deviance.
Encompasses traits such as crazy and sadistic vs.
normal and loving. NOT CORRELATED WITH OTHER 51. Descriptive definitions 2. Historical definitions 3. Normative definitions: patterns for living 4. Psychological definitions: traditional ways of solving problems 5.Structural definitions: social institutions 6. Non-Genetic definitions: nongenetic communication from one individual to anotherClick here to enter a definition.-concerned with identifying the links between culture and the psychological processes of people exposed to that cultural - This model contains two levels of analysis—the population level and the individual level. Cultural psychologists attempt to answer questions at both levels. -Click here to enter a definition.-deductive Theory Hypotheses Research Observations -inductive Research Observations Hypotheses Theory: Living in Uganda with a lot of malaria. Ugandans became resistant through biological adaptations. If you were not born there and were visiting you would were a net and spray because you are not immune. o : Living in Uganda with a lot of malaria. Ugandans became resistant through biological adaptations. If you were not born there and were visiting you would were a net and spray because you are not immune. leaders delegate to those below them and so on, and thus a diverse set of jobs are accomplished. People accept their roles in a hierarchical modelinvolves the study of the individuals living in societies in which groups coexist. It attempts to identify the impact of “culture contact” on psychological processes & group relationsinvolves the study of individuals who form ethnic minority groups within a society. Ethnic minority psychologists study the psychological processes of ethnic minorities and the socio-political forces that affect ethnic minorities. “token” studies involves the study of abnormal behavior across cultures. Transcultural psychiatrists compare the frequency and characteristics of psychological disorders across cultures and attempt to identify “culture-bound” psychological disorders.refers to a tendency to agree with questionnaire items, irrespective of their content remedy: include an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively-keyed items in questionnaires ex:Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that the respondent possesses the characteristic, attitude, or belief assessed by the item. E.g. I like to socialize. Negatively-keyed items: Disagreement indicates that the respondent possesses the characteristic, attitude, or belief assessed by the item. E.g. I like to spend a lot of time by myself.Moderacy bias: Refers to a tendency to select scores near the midpoint of a rating scale when responding to questionnaire items. Extremity bias: Refers to a tendency to select scores near the endpoints of a rating scale when responding to questionnaire items.Refers to a tendency to respond to questionnaire items in a way that promotes a favorable selfimage. remedies: -anonymous questionnaires -Use neutral items to describe both positive and negative characteristics. -Use a separate measure to assess participants’ tendency to engage in socially desirable responding. (marlowe-crowne social desirability scale or Paulhus self-deception scale)Refers to the fact that people from different cultures use different standards to evaluate themselves when responding to questionnaire items. E.g., Rate the item “I am tall” using the following chinese male versus dutch - apparently questionnaires are resistant to referece-group effect because people are more likely to introspect -remedies:Use items that refer to specific context-based behaviours or scenarios rather than abstract psychological concepts (e.g., emotions, traits). Provide respondents with quantitative response options rather than qualitative response options. Use objective measures rather than self-report measures. Note: huge correlation between GNP and socially desirable responding Lower GNP, higher socially desirable responding (-.70) -Relevant to research on cultural differences in values -Refers to the fact that people indicate a preference for values they lack or feel that they are deficient in A respondent from an individualistic society is likely to provide a higher rating for “accepting my position in life,” whereas a respondent from a collectivistic society is likely to provide a higher rating for “choosing own goals.” Remedy for the deprivation effect: Use items that refer to specific context-based behaviours or scenarios rather than abstract values.When examining psychological universals, cultural psychologists should randomly sample from all existing cultural groups in order to ensure “worldwide representativeness.” When examining a specific cultural group, cultural psychologists should randomly sample from all members of that cultural group in order to ensure “sample representativeness-refers to the transfer and acquisition of cultural information through social learning. -Vertical transmission, horizontal transmission, and oblique transmission. -The relative importance of these three forms of cultural transmission varies with the size and degree of industrialization of a society.Whereas transmitted culture is learned, evoked culture emerges through interaction with particular ecological conditions. These ecological conditions activate responses that are biologically encoded in all human beingsyes, (nonhuman primates), but humans appear to be the only species capable of complex cultural transmission -Tomasello attributes to our unique cognitive skills -the ability to understand other's perspectives= theory of mind --Emulation only E.g., An infant observes an adult open a jar and learns that “the object can be opened.” With this knowledge, the infant sets out to devise her own strategy for opening the jar.0Between 9 and 12 months of age, infants begin to recognize others as intentional agents (i.e., as individuals who have independent intentions, goals, and desires). -Consistent with this change in social cognition, children at this age begin to look where adults look (gaze following) and direct adult attention to objects or events that they are interested in (joint attentional interactions). -thus imitative learning starts-begin to recognize others as mental agents with independent beliefs - can engage in instructive learningchildren begin to recognize others as reflective agents (i.e., as individuals who can reflect upon the beliefs of others). -Given this change in social cognition, children acquire the ability to engage in a new form of learning—collaborative learning. It allows for “cultural creation” or cultural construction.Cultural evolution refers to the changes that occur to the traditions, practices, and artifacts of a cultural group across time. Cultural evolution tends to be cumulative—that is, the changes that occur to traditions, practices, and artifacts tend to accumulate across time, building upon previous modificationsThe cumulative nature of changes to cultural traditions, practices, and tools among humans Through the ratchet effect, cultural traditions, practices, and tools among humans tend to increase in complexity across time, often becoming more useful or adaptive. E.g., The evolution of the knife-Maintains that cultural evolution occurs through the modification of ideas as they are passed from one individual to another. -Ideas are modified as they are learned; individuals interpret the ideas that they learn in their own idiosyncratic ways, thereby creating “new” ideas that they subsequently pass on to others -Thus, ideas are never replicated; rather, learners “recreate” the ideas that they are exposed to- Based on Tomasello’s Theory of Cultural Learning. - Maintains that cultural evolution requires the ability to recognize others as intentional agents. - Recognition of others as intentional agents enables imitative learning. Imitative learning is the only means by which pre-existing behavioural strategies can be accurately learned. through imitation, (a) the goals associated with those strategies can be further considered and (b) more adaptive strategies that build upon the original strategies can be developed-Dawkins defines a meme as “a unit of cultural transmission” which propagates itself “by … a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation.” -A meme may be of any size, ranging from a single word to a complex behavioural pattern. Examples of memes: Advertising slogans and jingles (e.g., “Where’s the beef?”). Replication occurs when a meme is copied through imitation -Variation occurs through “mutation” and “recombination.” Mutation occurs when memes are modified (e.g., through misinterpretation, embellishment). Recombination occurs when two or more memes are combined. Mutation and recombination are thought to produce new memes or “innovations.” Selection occurs through the differential retention of memes in memory. Memes that are retained in memory are more likely to be spread in the population-Children have impulse control to certain degrees, whereas primates do not-large, nutritious crops such as wheat and barley -large mammals that can be domesticated- these stemmed from the fertile crescent out of the middle east =farming to be more efficient and allowed others to specialize in other areas because of a food surplus.Values (a) are concepts or beliefs, (b) pertain to desirable end states or behaviors, (c) transcend specific situations, (d) guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative importance.”1. \"Time Orientation\" =Past, present, or future 2. \"Man-nature\" orientation= Subjugation to, harmony with, or mastery over nature 3. \"Activity\" orientation= being, becoming or doing 4. \"Nature of man\" orientation= good, evil, mixed 5. \"Relational\" orientation= collateral, lineal or individualistic- study: examined values among IBM employees in 40 countries -4 value dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and individualism1. Mastery vs. harmony 2. Hierarchy vs. egalitarianism vs. egalitarianism 3. Conservatism vs. autonomy -he depicted the values in a circular structure -adjacent values are compatible with one another and can be simultaneously pursued by a cultural group -opposing are incompatible and cannot be simultaneously pursued. -starting at top and going clockwise: hierarchy, conservatism, harmony, egalitarianism, autonomy, masteryA cognitive schema (i.e., organized knowledge structure) that contains beliefs about the self and controls the processing of self-relevant information. Specifically, theorists have come to believe that the emphasis on independence and personal goals in individualistic cultures leads people to develop an “independent self-construal.”vs \"interdependent self-construal\"-independent self-construal:a lot of fluidity in ingroup andd outgroup entities not a lot in self and ingroup, but little fluidity between self and outgroup with interdependent and lots of fluidity between self and ingroup Research has shown that people from individualistic cultures tend use abstract, global, and stable attributes (e.g., traits) to describe themselves, whereas people from collectivistic cultures tend to use social categories or affiliations (e.g., social roles) to describe themselves.(a) 65% of the statements generated by American participants referred to attributes, whereas 34% of the statements generated by Indian participants referred to attributes. (b) 26% of the statements generated by American participants referred to social categories, whereas 42% of the statements generated by Indian participants referred to social categories.Research has shown that the self-beliefs of people from individualistic cultures tend to be more consistent across social contexts than the self-beliefs of people from collectivistic cultures. is a greater correlation between consistency of self-beliefs and psychological adjustment in individualistic cultures than collectivistic cultures.the SCC scores obtained by the Canadian participants were higher than the SCC scores obtained by the Japanese participants. (b) the correlations between SCC and SE were higher among the Canadian participants than the Japanese participantsResearch suggests that people from individualistic cultures tend to engage in self-enhancement—that is, they tend to view and evaluate themselves in a positive and socially desirable manner. Self-enhancement is motivated by a desire to bolster one’s self-image and demonstrate one’s unique attributes. =collectivistic cultures tend to engage in self-effacement in order to fit in with othersClick here to enter a definition. Eysenck developed his theory of personality on the basis of pre-existing theories—specifically, theories proposed centuries earlier by Hippocrates and Galen. In his original theory, Eysenck suggested that there are 2 basic dimensions of personality: -Extraverson:Reflects a desire for social interaction, excitement, and activity. Encompasses traits such as lively and sociable vs. passive and quiet. -Emotional Instability:Emotional Instability: Reflects a tendency to experience unstable emotions. Encompasses traits such as anxious and moody vs. calm and eventempered. - therefore there a 4 possible personality types On the basis of subsequent research, Eysenck identified a third personality dimension: Psychoticism: Reflects a psychological detachment from others. Encompasses traits such as toughminded and impersonal vs. tender-minded and sympathetic.Click here to enter a definition.-men higher on psychoticism and extroversion generally -women higher on emotional instability Click here to enter a definition.the degree to which cultures encourage males & females to adopt traditionally \"masculine\" and \"feminine\" alues respectively -across cultures, women do no differ much but the level of masculinity does the degree to which cultures emphasize independence and personal goals over interdependent and collective goals -tend to be geographically separated from other cultures (ie america) -high geographic mobility -many immigrants -smaller families -correlated with GNP -higher social pathology (ie divorces, crime etc) rooted in Confucian philosophy -prescribes to value of long-term commitments and tradition The degree to which cultures emphasize mastery and control over the environment versus harmony with the preservation of the environment the degree to which cultures emphasize hierarchical distribution of power and resources versus transcendence of selfish interests and welfare of all societal members -SchwartzSchwartz: the degree to which cultures emphasize self-restraint and the maintenance of group harmony versus independent pursuit of ideas, interests and challenge and pleasureassociated with testorone levels controversial because some think it measures things that are too heterogeneousallows researcher to examine all possible correlationspeople understand that others have minds that are different from their own, and thus that other people have perspectives and intentions that are different from their ownthe learner internalizes something of the models' goals and behavioral strategies learning is focused on the environmental events that are involved - how the use of one object could potentially effect changes in the state of the environment ratio of the brain weight of an animal to that predicted for a comparable animal of same body sizethose primates who were most successful at navigating the intracate and elaborate webs of socials relationships would have been more liekly to attract mates, secure resources and protect themselves and their offspring from dangers etc-volume of the neocortex to the rest of the brain -developed to figure outthe evolution of primates large braina given cognitive tool exists in all cultures, is used to solve the same problem across cultures and is accessible to the same degree across cultures -i.e. understanding that objects do not just disappeara cognitive tool exists in multiple cultures, it is used to solve the same problem across cultures yet it is more accessible to people from some cultures than others -example: crime and punishment (different resources to punish across cultures but all do it in some manner or another)cognitive tool that exists in multiple cultures, although the tool is not necessarily used to solve the same problem, nor is it equally accessible across cultures -ex: westerners find experiences of success motivating and failure demotivating people interact with their environment through the \"tools\" or human-made ideas that have been passed to them across history we often judge people from other cultures by comparing them to the standards of our own culture-ecocultural model -those that have direct and immediate relations with their effects - ex: Spaniards had the political organization that drew upon thousands of years of writing and history of oceangoing to travel to the Americas-ecocultural model -initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time, and often through indirect relations. -why spanish defeated the INcans, immunity to own diseases, guns over years of technological advances due to the proximity to the fertile crescent people come to learn about particular practices through social learning or by modeling others who live near them-biological evolution -occurs when: individual variation exists, traits are associated with survival advantages, traits have a hereditary basis -numerous trade-offs with every variation-biological evolution -based on reproductive success-biological evolution has high fidelity and longevity (which cultural may or may not) -fecundity - reproduce many copies of themselves to be more prevalent in future generations-distribution of diseases among populations -first, an individual (inventor) has a mental representation of an idea in her mind. =then another individual (imitator) who learns about the idea creates a mental representation of the idea in his own head. The idea is not directly translated because of individual's idiosyncrasies, and each time someone re-creates it anew-communicable= usually through language, out of this the dynamic social impact theory grows= individuals come to influence each other and they do so primarily in terms of how often the individual s interact= clusters of like-minded people united geographically -emotional ideas spread- emotional salience, leads to contemporary legends fictional stories told in modern societies as though they are true, people are more likely to communicate ideas they think are useful -minimally counterintuitive ideas persist= violate our expectations but are not too outlandish are recalled better than intuitive ones-becoming increasing interconnected, not necessarily homogeneous -becoming more individualistic -becoming more intelligent -cultural innovations build on previous structures -early conditions have disproportionate influence on cultural evolution -pluralistic ignorance: tendency for people to collectively misinterpret the thoughts that underlie other people's behavior -relevant because people are influenced by what they believe other people feel rather than by what the actually feel-develop some knowledge about the cultures under study -contrasting highly different cultures versus similar cultures , methodological influence- having one's methods perceived in identical ways across different culturesprinciple stipulates that we should make as few assumptions as possible- people (especially men) strive to protect their reputation through aggresssion - The american south is a culture of honor compared to the north - herders=one's livelihood can be easily stolen, you must have a reputation that you will defend your herdClick here to enter a definition.-9 years some permanence emerges -around 10 is when sensitive language period ends, it appears that the two may be inextricably intertwined -North Americans tend to think that trends will continue in the same direction as they have in the past whereas East Asians are more likely to expect that change will be nonlinear and that an increasing trend will soon be followed with a decreasing trend-sleeping arrangements, NA pretty much the only culture that thinks children should have a separate room -individualistic versus collectivistic orientations: example individualistic cultures allow child to take the lead while the mother plays a supportive role whereas in collectivist cultures the mothers introduce topics and children -attachment styles- see slides -noun biases-INdians are guided by incest avoidance, protectin of the vulnerable (ie children), then female chastity anxiety, and finally respect fro hierarchy -Americans valued incest avoidance, sacred couple (privacy for couples) Attachment theory: infants and parents are biologically prepared to establish close attachmetns with eachother -secure occaisionally seek mother's presence byt are curious and explorative, this is the style that is sought after in individualistic societies -Avoidant : show little distress on their mother's absence and avoid her on her return, valued in Germans -anxious-ambivalent: show distress when mother is gone but often avoid her upon return -improved contextual memory -spatial memroy -serial memory -visual and sequential memory -process information more efficiently Americans suffer more from this -East Asians defend decisions amde for themselves by others more and Americans defend decisions they make mroe-subjective: individuals considering themselves from the perspective of the subject -objective: individuals consider how they appear to others -incremental= the belief that we can easily change and are expected to change -entity= aspects of the self are largely resistant to change, aspects of the self reflect the essence of the individual -downward; comparing your performance with the performance of someone who is doing even worse than you -upward: someone doing betteryou acknowledge the poor grade you got in class, but you instead start to think about your excellent basketball skills-reducing the perceived importance of the domain in which you performed poorly in order to avoid cognitive dissonance-way of avoiding cognitive dissonance -attribute the cause of our actions to something outside ourselves-of a successful group in which you belong. Emphasize your connectin to successfully performing others and feel better about yourself by sharing the warm glow of other's success-North Americans of Euro descent vs East Asia -93% Eurro have high self-esteem, only 55% Jap -Euro remember pos events Jap neg -NA often compensate for failures by inflating self-assessments in other domains and Jap do opposite - NA tend to discount Jap view it as more important -book ties this back to predestination from protestant religion vs asian religion -the amount of social value others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position -easy to lose -kind of defensive, cautious approach to not losing something aka face -focus on shortcomings to avoid future failure-concern with advancing oneself and aspiring for gains-primary= ppl achieve this by striving to shape existing realities to fit their perceptions, goals or wishes - control, influence, agency -secondary= ppl attempt to align themselves with existing realities, leaving the realities unchanged, but exerting control over their psychological impact= accepting one's circumstance The researchers consistently found 5 groups of inter-correlated items. Each group of intercorrelated items was thought to reflect a single dimension of personality Extraversion (E): Reflects engagement with the social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive and talkative vs. inhibited and shy. Neuroticism (N): Reflects a tendency to experience negative and unstable emotions. Encompasses traits such as anxious and insecure vs. optimistic and stable. Agreeableness (A): Reflects a concern with cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits such as kind and sympathetic vs. cold and cruel. Conscientiousness (C): Reflects an ability to control and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as meticulous and organized vs. disorderly and sloppy. Openness to Experience (O): Reflects an open and creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as artistic and intellectual vs. unimaginative and unreflective. -NEO-PI-R measures thisthat countries contain like personality profiles-some have more dimensions -Philippines have 7 dimensions They labeled the dimensions: Gregariousness, Self-assurance, Concern for others vs. egotism, Conscientiousness, Intellect, Temperamentalness, and Negative valence They found that the first 5 of these dimensions were highly correlated with the FFM dimensions of E, N, A, C, and O, respectively **Temperamentalness: Reflects emotional reactivity. Encompasses traits such as hot-headed and irritable vs. calm and understanding. Negative valence: Reflects social deviance. Encompasses traits such as crazy and sadistic vs. normal and loving. NOT CORRELATED WITH OTHER 5The researchers consistently found 5 groups of inter-correlated items. Each group of intercorrelated items was thought to reflect a single dimension of personality Extraversion (E): Reflects engagement with the social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive and talkative vs. inhibited and shy. Neuroticism (N): Reflects a tendency to experience negative and unstable emotions. Encompasses traits such as anxious and insecure vs. optimistic and stable. Agreeableness (A): Reflects a concern with cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits such as kind and sympathetic vs. cold and cruel. Conscientiousness (C): Reflects an ability to control and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as meticulous and organized vs. disorderly and sloppy. Openness to Experience (O): Reflects an open and creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as artistic and intellectual vs. unimaginative and unreflective. -NEO-PI-R measures thisthat countries contain like personality profiles-some have more dimensions -Philippines have 7 dimensions They labeled the dimensions: Gregariousness, Self-assurance, Concern for others vs. egotism, Conscientiousness, Intellect, Temperamentalness, and Negative valence They found that the first 5 of these dimensions were highly correlated with the FFM dimensions of E, N, A, C, and O, respectively **Temperamentalness: Reflects emotional reactivity. Encompasses traits such as hot-headed and irritable vs. calm and understanding. Negative valence: Reflects social deviance. Encompasses traits such as crazy and sadistic vs. normal and loving. NOT CORRELATED WITH OTHER 5
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Kluckhorn and Kroeber argued that culture had 6 main categories?
Purpose of cultural psychology?
Purpose of cultural psychology?
Refer to Berry's ecocultural relativist theory of the mind
What is the difference between deductive and inductive research methods?
what is the difference between deductive and inductive research methods?
genetic transmissions of culture in the berry ecocultural model
acculturation- berry ecocultural model
cultural transmission
multicultural psychology
ethnic minority psychology
transcultural psychiatry
acquiescence bias
moderacy and extremity bias
socially desirable responding
reference-group effect
deprivation effect
problems obtaining representative samples?
Cultural Transmission
Transmitted culture versus evoked culture?
Can animals engage in social learning?
What kind of learning occurs from birth-9 months?
What kind of social learning occurs from 9 months to 4 years?
4-6 years learning
6-7 years of age and social learning?
cultural evolution
What is the \"ratchet effect\"?
What is the epidemological view of cultural evolution?
What is the cultural learning view of cultural evolution?
Memetic view of cultural evolution
Children versus primates in impulse control?
Discuss Diamond's theory for why certain areas of the world advanced and others did not?
Schwartz and Bilsky's defintion of values
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck discovered 5 value dimensions that cultural groups vary on?
Hofstede conducted a study identifying 4 different ways of cultural values, explain.
Schwartz found 3 differing cultural value dimensions
Self-concept?
consult these diagrams
self-descriptions and cultural differences
What cultural differences did the 20 statements test find?
what are the differences between individualism and collectivism in self-consistency
Cambell's self-concept clarity and self-esteem study findings
What is self-enhancement and what are the cultural differences?
Eysenck's Trait theory of Personality
Eysenck's theory of personality
Gender differences in Eysenck's trait personality theory
Gender differences in Eysenck's personality trait theory?
Masculinity:
Masculinity
Individualism
Long-Term Orientation:
Mastery vs. Harmony
Hierarchy versus egalitarianism
Conservatism versus autonomy
psychoticism
factor-analysis
Theory of mind
Imitative learning
Emulative Learning
Encephalization quotient
Social brain hypothesis
neocortex ratio
Accessibility universal
Functional universal
Existential universal
Russian cultural-historical school
ethnocentrism
Proximal causes
Distal causes
transmitted culture
Natural selection
Sexual selection
difference between cultural and biological evolution
Epidemology of ideas
What are factors that cause ideas to spread?
How are cultures changing?
How does culture persist
How should we compare cultures?
Occam's razor
Culture of honor
By what age does the sensitive period of cultural learning \"end\"?
By what age does the sensitive period of cultural learning end?
What are some differences in how North Americans and East Asians view the future?
What type of childhood experiences differ across culture?
study about family and limited bedroom scenario revealed
describe the different types of attachment styles
Schooling leads to what differences in cognition
Cognitive dissoannce contd
subjective vs. objective self-awareness
incremental vs entity theory of self
Downward vs upward social comparison
compensatory self-enhancement:
Discounting
Eternal attribution
Bask in the reflected glory
Cultural differences in self-enhancement?
Face
prevention orientation
promotion orientation
primary versus secondary control
Five Factor Model
What cultural differences did the NEO-PI-R find?
What did Church et. al discover about personality
Five Factor Model
What cultural differences did the NEO-PI-R find?
What did Church et. al discover about personality
